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A priority queue returns the highest-priority element first and is efficiently implemented by a binary heap.
A queue is a First-In-First-Out (FIFO) line where you add at the back and remove from the front in O(1) time.
A monotonic deque is a double-ended queue that keeps elements in increasing or decreasing order so that the front always holds the current optimum (min or max).
A stack is a Last-In, First-Out (LIFO) data structure where push, pop, and top operations run in O(1) time.
A monotonic stack is a stack that keeps its elements in increasing or decreasing order to answer range queries in linear time.
Gaussian elimination is a systematic way to solve linear equations by cleaning a matrix into an upper-triangular form using row swaps, scaling, and adding multiples of rows.
The determinant of a square matrix measures how a linear transformation scales volume and whether it flips orientation.
A matrix inverse undoes the effect of a linear transformation, just like dividing by a number undoes multiplication.